Interestingly, humans also have carnosine within the brain, eye, and heart tissue [ 37 , ]. Therefore some initial data has explored the neuronal effects of carnosine [ 80 , ], as well as potential effects on cardiac tissue and heart rate [ 60 ].
Future research exploring the effects of beta-alanine to induce changes in carnosine concentrations in these tissues would be beneficial, as well as explorations of potential physiological effects in humans. An additional potential function of carnosine has been linked to improvements in calcium sensitivity in muscle fibers [ , ]. As a result of improved calcium sensitivity, there may be a direct impact on muscular performance. This mechanism has not yet been fully explored in humans.
One recent paper by Hannah et al. Future studies should further explore this mechanism. Lastly, there is a need for long-term safety data on beta-alanine supplementation as well as more information on potential benefits in special populations such as elderly and tactical athletes. Four weeks of beta-alanine supplementation 4—6 g daily significantly augments muscle carnosine concentrations, thereby acting as an intracellular pH buffer.
Beta-alanine supplementation currently appears to be safe in healthy populations at recommended doses. The only reported side effect is paraesthesia i. Beta-alanine attenuates neuromuscular fatigue, particularly in older subjects, and preliminary evidence indicates that beta-alanine may improve tactical performance. Combining beta-alanine with other single or multi-ingredient supplements may be advantageous when the dose of beta-alanine is sufficient i.
More research is needed to determine the effects of beta-alanine on strength, endurance performance beyond 25 min in duration, and other health-related benefits associated with carnosine. Eric T. Trexler and Abbie E. Smith-Ryan contributed equally to this work.
Competing interests. ETT has no conflicts to disclose. AESR has received grants as Principal investigator to evaluate the efficacy of dietary supplements.
JRS has received grants to examine the efficacy of BA. CDW has no conflicts to disclose. CS has no conflicts to disclose. RBK has received grants as Principal Investigator through institutions with which he has been affiliated to conduct exercise and nutrition related research, has served as a legal and scientific consultant, and currently serves as a scientific consultant for Nutrabolt Bryan, TX.
RJ has no competing interests to disclose. LB has no conflicts to disclose. BC writes and is compensated for various media outlets on topics related to sports nutrition and fitness; has received funding for research related to dietary supplements; serves on an advisory board for a sports nutrition company and is compensated in product donations. DK has no conflicts to disclose. DK works for a contract research organization that does conduct clinical trials for pharmaceutical nutrition industries.
TNZ has received research support from companies to study beta-alanine and has co-formulated products containing beta-alanine. JA has no conflicts to declare. All other coauthors reviewed, edited, and approved the draft, and the final manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. Published online Jul Trexler , Abbie E. Smith-Ryan , Jeffrey R. Stout , Jay R. Hoffman , Colin D. Wilborn , Craig Sale , Richard B. Ziegenfuss , and Jose Antonio.
Abbie E. Jeffrey R. Jay R. Colin D. Richard B. Conrad P. Tim N. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Smith-Ryan, Email: ude. Corresponding author. Received Jun 16; Accepted Jun This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Position statement The International Society of Sports Nutrition ISSN provides an objective and critical review of the mechanisms and use of beta-alanine supplementation.
Introduction Beta-alanine is a non-proteogenic amino acid that is produced endogenously in the liver. Beta-alanine works by enhancing muscle carnosine concentrations. Supplementation strategies The supplementation strategy for beta-alanine is important to maximize its effects. Beta-alanine safety Paraesthesia i.
Consensus of findings To gain a better consensus of published findings, this review includes an analysis of the relative effects RE of literature obtained from PubMed and Google Scholar databases.
Open in a separate window. Effects of Beta-alanine on exercise performance It has been suggested that chronic beta-alanine supplementation improves high-intensity exercise performance by increasing muscle carnosine content, thereby enhancing intracellular proton buffering [ 50 , 51 ]. Anaerobic exercise performance The primary physiological mechanism associated with beta-alanine supplementation is most likely related to enhancing intracellular buffering capacity, consequently it has been hypothesized that beta-alanine supplementation would have ergogenic potential for activities that are primarily reliant on anaerobic metabolism.
Aerobic exercise performance For exercise bouts lasting greater than four minutes, ATP demand is increasingly met via aerobic metabolic pathways. Neuromuscular fatigue The physical working capacity at fatigue threshold PWC FT indicates the highest cycling power output that results in a non-significant increase in vastus lateralis muscle activation.
Beta-alanine attenuates neuromuscular fatigue, particularly in older subjects. Strength outcomes Studies investigating the effects of beta-alanine on strength outcomes have reported mixed findings.
Tactical athletes The training and duties of military personnel and other tactical athletes often consist of prolonged and rigorous exercise, resulting in reductions in physical and cognitive performance [ 77 ]. Beta-alanine combined with other sports supplements The combined effects of beta-alanine with other ergogenic aids, such as sodium bicarbonate, creatine, and multi-ingredient pre-workout formulas, have gained popularity.
Health Decades of literature support a potential for carnosine to influence some mechanisms related to health including antioxidant properties, anti-aging, immune enhancing, and neurotransmitter actions. Future research evaluating potential anti-aging effects and the impact of potential antioxidant properties in humans would be important to explore, especially due to the positive effects beta-alanine has shown in older populations [ 24 , 73 ] Beta-alanine may act as an antioxidant.
Footnotes Eric T. Competing interests ETT has no conflicts to disclose. References 1. The absorption of orally supplied beta-alanine and its effect on muscle carnosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis. Amino Acids. Dunnett M, Harris RC. Influence of oral beta-alanine and L-histidine supplementation on the carnosine content of the gluteus medius.
Equine Vet J Suppl. Influence of beta-alanine supplementation on skeletal muscle carnosine concentrations and high intensity cycling capacity. Carnosine loading and washout in human skeletal muscles. J Appl Physiol. The carnosine content of vastus lateralis in vegetarians and omnivores. The carnosine content of vastus lateralis is elevated in resistance-trained bodybuilders.
J Strength Cond Res. A new method for non-invasive estimation of human muscle fiber type composition. PLoS One. The effects of 10 weeks of resistance training combined with beta-alanine supplementation on whole body strength, force production, muscular endurance and body composition. The effect of 4 weeks beta-alanine supplementation and isokinetic training on carnosine concentrations in type I and II human skeletal muscle fibres.
Eur J Appl Physiol. Effects of isokinetic training of the knee extensors on high-intensity exercise performance and skeletal muscle buffering. The effect of sprint training on skeletal muscle carnosine in humans. Int J Sport Health Sci. Physiology and pathophysiology of carnosine. Physiol Rev. Muscle carnosine metabolism and beta-alanine supplementation in relation to exercise and training.
Sports Med. Vegetarianism, female gender and increasing age, but not CNDP1 genotype, are associated with reduced muscle carnosine levels in humans.
Carnosine and anserine concentrations in the quadriceps femoris muscle of healthy humans. Abe H. Role of histidine-related compounds as intracellular proton buffering constituents in vertebrate muscle. Biochemistry Mosc ; 65 7 — Carnosine and taurine contents in individual fibres of human vastus lateralis muscle.
J Sports Sci. High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of imidazole dipeptides, histidine, 1-methylhistidine and 3-methylhistidine in equine and camel muscle and individual muscle fibres. Effect of two beta-alanine dosing protocols on muscle carnosine synthesis and washout. J Appl Physiol ; 5 — Muscle carnosine loading by beta-alanine supplementation is more pronounced in trained vs. J Appl Physiol ; 2 —9. Effects of beta-alanine supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue and ventilatory threshold in women.
Med Sci Sports Exerc. The effect of beta-alanine supplementation on neuromuscular fatigue in elderly 55—92 Years : a double-blind randomized study. Effect of beta-alanine supplementation on muscle carnosine concentrations and exercise performance. Purification and properties of human serum carnosinase.
Clin Chim Acta. Intestinal absorption of the intact peptide carnosine in man, and comparison with intestinal permeability to lactulose. J Physiol. Estimation of the effects of charged groups on the pKa value of the imidazole ring. Carnosine and anserine ingestion enhances contribution of nonbicarbonate buffering. Davey CL. The significance of carnosine and anserine in striated skeletal muscle. Arch Biochem Biophys.
Beta-alanine supplementation reduces acidosis but not oxygen uptake response during high-intensity cycling exercise. Exercise-induced oxidative stress: cellular mechanisms and impact on muscle force production. A potential role for free radical-mediated skeletal muscle soreness in the pathophysiology of acute mountain sickness. Aviat Space Environ Med. Venditti P, Di Meo S. Effect of training on antioxidant capacity, tissue damage, and endurance of adult male rats.
Int J Sports Med. Effect of carnosine and its components on free-radical reactions. Membr Cell Biol. Antioxidant activity of carnosine, homocarnosine, and anserine present in muscle and brain.
Beta-alanine and the hormonal response to exercise. Changes in muscle carnosine of subjects with 4 weeks of supplementation with a controlled relase formulation of beta-alanine CarnoSyn , and for 6 weeks post Abstract FASEB J.
Optimizing human in vivo dosing and delivery of beta-alanine supplements for muscle carnosine synthesis. Meal and beta-alanine coingestion enhances muscle carnosine loading. Effects of beta-alanine supplementation on exercise performance: a meta-analysis. Identification of a G protein-coupled receptor specifically responsive to beta-alanine.
J Biol Chem. J Neurosci. J Amino Acids. Murakami T, Furuse M. The impact of taurine- and beta-alanine-supplemented diets on behavioral and neurochemical parameters in mice: antidepressant versus anxiolytic-like effects. The cytoprotective role of taurine in exercise-induced muscle injury. Carnosine is instrumental in the improvement of muscle strength and performance during exercise.
During exercise or training sessions, through the process of glycolysis, glucose is broken down, and pyruvate is produced, which is sometimes converted to a chemical known as lactate. Lactate produces high quantities of hydrogen ions.
The increased acidity lowers the pH level in the muscles. The acidity in the tissues blocks the process of glycolysis reduces the elasticity of the muscles. That decrease in elasticity is the origin of exhaustion and fatigue during exercise.
The introduction of beta-alanine in the body, and in turn, higher levels of carnosine act as a buffer against a drop in pH and reduce acidity levels in the muscles during exercises.
The reduction of fatigue tells us that beta-alanine is beneficial to professional athletes and those looking to gain a competitive edge. Quick Tip: Beta-alanine and carnosine work together to reduce fatigue by lowering the levels of acidity in muscles. Orally ingested carnosine breaks down into beta-alanine and histidine on absorption from the gut. Only micro amounts of beta-alanine make their way to the bloodstream.
Research tells us that the body has enough histidine to meet the demands of muscles for synthesizing carnosine, but not enough beta-alanine. Beta-alanine supplementation augments the small amounts available from 1 synthesis in the liver, and 2 from the ingestion of meat and fish. Supplemental beta-alanine combines with the naturally occurring histidine to increase the levels of carnosine. Quick Tip: The most effective way to increase carnosine levels in the body is to supplement with the right dosage of beta-alanine.
Supplementing with beta-alanine is not just for athletes. Beta-alanine is making an impact in the general wellness and healthy aging market. As a critical building block of carnosine, this powerful antioxidant can support healthy aging throughout the body. Regardless of your athletic status, these are the top five reasons to take beta-alanine:.
Carnosine is a powerful antioxidant. Its strong anti-glycation ability protects the brain and supports cognitive function and mental acuity. It may also decrease occasional anxiety, support memory, delay mental fatigue, speed up executive function, and increase focus. Carnosine helps regulate muscle contractions and prevent lipid oxidation in the body. It also supports healthy circulation and already-healthy blood pressure levels through vasodilation.
Carnosine promotes muscle quality and function. Muscle function is vital in supporting our frame, aiding balance, and maintaining strength for everyday activity. Carnosine chelates heavy metals, supports blood sugar levels already in the healthy range, regulates immune system response , and acts as an anti-inflammatory factor.
Its antioxidant properties protect against free radicals throughout the body. Carnosine benefits bone and joint health through its anti-glycation action. Carnosine can contribute to overall skeletal integrity by directly protecting bone structure and supporting muscle function. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.
Quick Tip: Beta-alanine can make a significant impact on your overall wellness, including brain health, heart health, muscle function, systemic protection, and bone health. Most individuals do not consume enough beta-alanine in their diets to increase athletic performance. Since meat, poultry, and fish are the highest dietary sources of beta-alanine, vegetarian athletes have an even greater need to supplement beta-alanine levels.
It is critical for those with vegan or vegetarian dietary restrictions to supplement with beta-alanine to ensure healthy carnosine levels. Quick Tip: Vegans and vegetarians need to supplement with beta-alanine because meat sources are the most common source of beta-alanine. The most important thing to remember about when to take beta-alanine is to dose every day—even on non-workout days. The concentration of muscle carnosine builds over time.
How and when you get your daily dose is a matter of preference. Quick Tip: Athletes typically supplement with beta-alanine in a pre-workout product. A consistent daily dose will fuel your workout no matter what time you take it. Getting results with beta-alanine is simple—if you take the right amount. Many athletes and sports nutrition brands are unaware of how much beta-alanine should go into their formulations.
Ready for more? Quick Tip: An average of 6. When it comes to beta-alanine consumption, the more the better for maximum gains. With sustained release beta-alanine, you can get even more results, faster. The sustained release delivery system allows athletes to ingest higher levels of beta-alanine comfortably and with extended absorption. Higher dosage converts to faster increases in muscle carnosine—and, as a result, much faster gains.
Quick Tip: Beta-alanine in a sustained release formulation provides advanced delivery and simplified dosing. Tingling of the body is the only side effect associated with beta-alanine supplementation. This tingling sensation is known as paresthesia which many people feel after ingesting beta-alanine. There are no harmful effects associated with paresthesia. As the paresthesia threshold varies from person to person, the level of tingling experienced may vary.
There are ways around the feeling of paresthesia, like taking multiple lower doses of beta-alanine throughout the day or using a sustained release version to release the beta-alanine within your body gradually.
Quick Tip: A tingling sensation, also known as paresthesia, is a potential side effect of beta-alanine.
There are no known adverse side effects of beta-alanine. Some people experience a tingling sensation referred to as paresthesia. While there are no harmful effects associated with paresthesia, it can be avoided or reduced. However, many users will know that there is a common side-effect which feels like an itchy or tingling sensation on the skin shortly after taking the supplement.
This sensation, which is termed paraesthesia, is related to a rapid increase of beta-alanine in the blood which subsides within minutes and has no long-term health effects. While some common beliefs are that these sensations mean the supplement is working, the only acute effect this might have is as a placebo.
Which leads us into the final detail of how to take beta-alanine to maximise the likelihood of an exercise benefit. Recommended doses would be 3. Ooh it tingles!
Adv Nutr. The absorption of orally supplied beta-alanine and its effect on muscle carnosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis. Amino Acids,30, Br J Sports Med,51, NAI has also provided free beta-alanine supplements for several original studies conducted by Dr Saunders, but NAI has never had any input into study design, interpretation or dissemination of results. If you want to find out the best types of protein, optimal amounts, or timing. Click here.
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